INTRODUCTION

Referred to as the “age wave,” the aging of the population is creating both opportunities and struggles within industry and government circles (Dychtwald and Flower 1990). With the retirement of the Baby Boomers, the workforce is currently experiencing a loss of knowledge greater than ever before. David DeLong, author of Lost Knowledge: Confronting the Threat of an Aging Workforce, notes that such a widespread retirement of experienced workers could lead to an unprecedented loss of expertise in the work force (2004). Furthermore, the type of knowledge this generation of retirees holds is unlike that seen in the past and is difficult to replace or train for in the future. Baby Boomers are a generation characterized by loyal employees who often spent numerous years working for a specific company. Moreover, experts estimate that 90% of knowledge in an organization is situated within peoples’ heads rather than being recorded in a formal mechanism (Wah 1999; Bonner 2000; Lee 2000). The knowledge, both tacit and explicit, contained within this single generation is vast and important to the future of many industries.

Ethnography offers an exciting opportunity to capture some of that knowledge in a way that has not been fully explored in business. This paper examines the use of ethnography as a method of knowledge capture for “seasoned experts” who are nearing the end of their time as working employees. In addition, rather than simply capturing and storing knowledge, it is crucial that a co-creative method is employed to use the captured knowledge to create training programs that are innovative, inspiring, and effective. Two examples of this approach are presented and examined from both the education and aviation industries.

TECHNOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO KNOWLEDGE CAPTURE

Many organizations discuss the importance of knowledge management for their continued success. Because of the growing concern regarding the loss of knowledge, many different methods of knowledge management have been developed (Beazley, et. al. 2002, Hertoz et. al. 2000). Knowledge management (KM) has been defined as:

…a systemic and organizationally specified process for acquiring, organizing and communicating both tacit and explicit knowledge of employees so that other employees may make use of it to be more effective and productive in their work (Alavi and Leidner 1999:6).

Traditional approaches to KM include using the employee to train his/her replacement. An alternative method involves re-hiring the employee as a contractor or part-time employee to maintain his/her knowledge but reduce costs. More recently, technological approaches to knowledge management have been developed such as web-based databases, multi-media presentations, and web-based communities or forums to exchange information (Lampl 2004:5). While there are several technological approaches available for knowledge management, several studies have documented the difficulties of using these approaches (Nycyk 2011, Lampl et. al. 2004).

While KM is a priority in many organizations, there are difficulties using technology for KM (Nycyk 2004, Lampl et al. 2004). One of the problems identified by Nycyk is that people are reluctant to use such technology, which ends up being viewed as “repositories and are often ignored by project staff” (2004:6). Another problem identified with KM technology is usability. If the system is not easy to use where people can readily find information they need, they will not use it. Nycyk concludes that most knowledge is received orally and committed to memory as tacit knowledge, making codifying into a technological system very difficult (2004:9). Styhre and Gluch (2010) made a similar observation based on KM in Scandinavian construction companies. They stated that formal procedures have been created to maximize KM; however, most sharing tends to take place more informally through personal communications. Lampl also notes the difficulty in recording tacit knowledge in technology-based forms of KM (2004:6). The difficulty in recording and transferring knowledge means that few organizations have managed to successfully share explicit and tacit knowledge (Bonner 2000).

THE BENEFITS OF ETHNOGRAPHY IN KNOWLEDGE CAPTURE

The benefits of an ethnographic approach as one component of the knowledge capture process are many. First, Lampl et al. (2004) note, formal mechanisms for knowledge capture are not likely to record the tacit knowledge, or how things are really done, within an organization. Whether it is a simple short-cut that saves time or a habitual way of working, employees are often not fully aware of the steps they take or the amount of “know-how” they have that is informal (Lampl et al. 2004). However, when someone is observed while working, the ethnographer is capable of capturing tacit knowledge whether it is through video recording, observation, or discussing what the ethnographer has observed. Compared to more traditional methods of knowledge capture, ethnography allows a much richer understanding of tacit knowledge.

An ethnographic approach is also crucial for uncovering the consistencies and inconsistencies between what one says they do and what one actually does. Again, ethnography is able to get at the tacit knowledge that may mean the difference between formal policies and the successful implementation of those policies. Ethnography allows one to uncover the instances where formal policy may not be followed exactly to the letter.

Using ethnography in an organization or industry also helps to personalize techniques, methods, or work styles that might typically be taught in a more theoretical manner. For instance, as one of these case studies will show, using ethnography to capture knowledge from successful teachers resulted in videotaped examples and descriptions of teachers implementing theories, techniques, and methods that teachers have likely been exposed to previously. However, ethnography offers the opportunity to see how these elements come to life in a particular school and with specific teachers.

Observing, recording, and analyzing the work of high performing individuals has many benefits. However, the output or deliverable of the ethnographic process must be useable by others or it will have the same drawbacks as other technological forms of KM. This is why we are utilizing a co-creative process to develop a training program to share the knowledge, techniques, and experiences of high performing individuals with their peers or successors.

CO-CREATING TRAINING PROGRAMS

As several authors discuss in this volume (and has been pointed out in past EPIC papers), it is important for ethnographers to move beyond simply recording and documenting, to developing new methods to assist with transitions currently taking place in the work force (Messervy and Werner 2012). Messervy and Werner argue that we can be most effective by working with our clients through the research phase and into the implementation process. Co-creation, “or the approach of actively involving all relevant stakeholders in the creative process,” takes ethnography to the next level. Since stakeholders are the true experts and will be the people who decide when and how to implement the recommendations developed from ethnographic research, it is important to work with them to create a successful implementation project (Messervy and Werner 2012).

The co-creation approach is utilized in this project in the planning phase, the ethnographic process, and particularly in the development of a training program based on research findings. I developed the initial research plan, but it was discussed, reviewed, and revised based on comments from the rest of the team, which included the project managers for both clients and my firm. During the ethnographic research process, I (an ethnographer and anthropologist) worked with the participants, project managers in both organizations, and the creative team. Most of the teamwork conducted during the ethnographic process had to do with scheduling and coordinating times for shadowing and observing the teachers. Then I analyzed the data gathered and developed outlines for the training programs based on the findings. The teams are reviewing the training outlines and will work together to develop the final trainings.

CASE STUDIES

Two ethnographic projects are explored in this paper. The first is an “Inspiring Teacher” program that documents the work of four highly skilled and successful teachers and administrators at a private school in Texas. The second focuses on a high performing manager in an international aviation organization. In each of these instances, clients were concerned about the loss of highly successful employees and their knowledge. A program was developed that included participant observation primarily through shadowing, as well as, semi-structured interviews as a method of capturing knowledge. Video recording was utilized to capture some of the interviews and observations. The data was then analyzed using a thematic approach to develop training programs that will be utilized to preserve the high performers in their work settings and train future teachers and managers. The remainder of this paper focuses on the process utilized, the problems experienced along the way, and offers advice for using ethnography as a component of succession planning and knowledge capture.

Both of the organizations for which this method was utilized were ongoing clients of my firm, Yaffe Deutser. The firm has worked with these organizations for several years in a variety of capacities. It came to our attention that both were concerned (as are many of our clients) with the impending retirements of several of their key employees. Based on our in-depth knowledge of each of these organizations, including their KM and succession planning practices, the firm suggested utilizing ethnography as a method of knowledge capture. The agreed upon deliverable for both clients was a training program that included a video component. The organizations include an elite private school in Texas and an aviation company that works in both the energy and medical industries.